Chapter 2 Kings and Kingdoms

 

Who were Samantas?

Samantas were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the Indian subcontinent during the seventh century. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or vassals. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support. As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) . Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.

What is the meaning of maha-samanta?

Maha-samanta is a title used by samantas to denote their increased power and wealth. The prefix “maha-” means “great” or “high,” so maha-samanta can be translated as “great samanta” or “high samanta.”  maha-mandaleshvara can be translated as “the great lord of a circle or region.

Who are Rashtrakutas?

The Rashtrakutas were a royal dynasty that ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. They were originally a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, they overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753 AD.

What is Hiranya-Garba?

Hiranya-garbha is a Sanskrit term that translates to “golden womb” or “golden egg.” In Vedic philosophy, it is considered to be the source of the creation of the universe or the manifested cosmos. The term also refers to a ritual performed with the help of Brahmanas, which was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. For example, in the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed the hiranya-garbha ritual.

How did the kings obtain their rent and from whom?

In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans – who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collected from traders. This system allowed for the collection of resources from various groups within the kingdom.

What were these resources used for?

The resources obtained by the kings in the form of rent and revenue were used to finance the king’s establishment, as well as for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. This allowed the kings to maintain their power and expand their territories.

Who were recruited to collect the revenue?

The text you provided does not specify who was recruited to collect the revenue. However, in general, kings would appoint officials to collect taxes and revenue on their behalf. These officials could be members of the king’s court or local chieftains who were responsible for collecting revenue from their respective territories and passing it on to the king.

Explain Prashasti

Prashastis were laudatory inscriptions that praised and commemorated the deeds of rulers. They contain details that may not be literally true but tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example.

Who composed the Prashasti

These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration.

What information did Prashastis provide?

Prashastis provided valuable insights into how rulers of the past wanted to be remembered and how they used these inscriptions to legitimize their rule and establish their authority.

How were the brahmanas who wrote prashastis rewarded.

The rulers rewarded Brahmanas and other learned men who composed prashastis and other laudatory inscriptions with gifts of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land. This suggests that one way in which Brahmanas who wrote prashastis may have been rewarded was through grants of land. This would have provided them with a source of income and allowed them to maintain their social status and influence.

Explain who was Kalhana?

• In the twelfth century, an author named Kalhana composed a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir.
• Kalhana used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account.
• Unlike the writers of prashastis, Kalhana was often critical about rulers and their policies.

Where was city of Kanuaj Located?

the city of Kanauj was located in the Ganga valley and was a prized area.

Why was it a prized area?

It is a prized area because of its location. It is located in the fertile Ganga valley made it an important center for agriculture and trade. Control over Kanauj would have provided rulers with access to the resources and wealth of the region, as well as strategic control over trade routes. This would have made it a valuable prize for any ruler seeking to expand their territory and increase their power.

Who were the rulers who were fighting for this area.

The Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties. This long-drawn conflict is often described by historians as the “tripartite struggle”.

How did the kings try to show their power.

 The rulers tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. These temples were not only places of worship but also served as centers of economic, social and cultural life. By building large and elaborate temples, rulers could showcase their wealth and power to their subjects and to other rulers.

What happened when rulers attacked one another's kingdom?

When rulers attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich. By plundering these temples and carrying away their wealth, rulers could weaken their enemies and enrich their own kingdoms.

Who was Mahmud of Ghazni

He was an Afghan ruler and founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030.

How many times did he invade Indian subcontinent.

Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the Indian subcontinent seventeen times during his rule.

Why did he invade Indian subcontinent?

Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the Indian subcontinent with economic motives. He targeted wealthy temples, including that of Somnath in Gujarat, and used the wealth he carried away to build his capital in Ghazni. These raids allowed him to enrich his kingdom and establish his power over the region.

Who were Chahamanas

• The Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, were a dynasty that ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
• They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east.
• They were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
• Prithviraja III was a Chahamana ruler who reigned from 1168 to 1192.
• In 1191, he defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori.
• However, in 1192, he lost to Sultan Muhammad Ghori in battle.

A Closer Look: The Cholas From Uraiyur to Thanjavu

How did the cholas rise to power?

The Cholas rose to power when Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar, a minor chiefly family who held power in the Kaveri delta and were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram.

Which Temple did Vijayalaya build? Where?

Vijayalaya built a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini in the town of Thanjavur.

When did he build it?

Vijayalaya built the temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini in the town of Thanjavur after capturing the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.

Did the Successors of Vijayalaya expand the kingdom .

Yes, after Vijayalaya captured the Kaveri delta, his successors conquered neighboring regions and expanded the kingdom. The Pandiyan and Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom.

Tell me more about Vijaylaya's Successors

After Vijayalaya captured the Kaveri delta, his successors conquered neighboring regions and expanded the kingdom. The Pandiyan and Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom. Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. He also reorganized the administration of the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even invaded the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

·           Chola temples were not just for praying, but also for social and cultural activities.

    ·       People lived and worked around temples, making things like garlands and food.
    ·       Temples were given land, and the crops grown on it helped support the temple workers.
    ·       Bronze statue making was a special craft associated with temples.
    ·       Chola bronze statues bronze-cast sculptures made through the tenth to thirteenth centuries in             southern India. They are especially known for depictions of Shiva as the Lord of Dance, Nataraja 
    ·       Statues were made of gods and goddesses, as well as of people who worshiped them.
    ·       Chola bronze Statutes

Agriculture and irrigation during the cholas

• The Cholas took extensive steps to develop agriculture.
• They leveled more land and cleared forests for growing crops.
• They gave land grants to encourage agriculture.
• They made embankments to prevent flooding.
• They dug wells and constructed tanks to collect rainwater.
• They developed advanced irrigation systems and built water canals.
• They made the best use of the river Cauvery by creating tributaries and building dams.
• They made the soil fertile and practiced extensive agriculture.

Tell more about irrigation systems during Chola rule.

During the Chola rule, extensive steps were taken to develop agriculture, including improving irrigation facilities for better production.

 

·       The Cholas constructed tanks and canals to collect rainwater and made embankments to prevent flooding.

·       They made the best use of the river Cauvery by creating tributaries and building dams. These measures helped improve irrigation and agriculture in the region.

·           Administration during the Chola rule was organized through settlements of peasants, known as ur, which became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture.

·            Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions, including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.

·           Rich peasants exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government.

·           The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings) and araiyar (chief) as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the center.

 

What were the responsibilities of the nadu?

 The nadu, which was a larger unit formed by groups of villages, performed several administrative functions. This included dispensing justice and collecting taxes. The nadu worked under the supervision of the central Chola government and was controlled by rich peasants.

How were taxes collected by the nadu?

 The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc., as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the center. These officials likely played a role in tax collection 

 Types of land

·       Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land:

1.          Vellanvagai: land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors
2.            Brahmadeya: land gifted to Brahmanas.
3.           Shalabhoga: land for the maintenance of a school
4.           Devadana, tirunamattukkani: land gifted to temples.
5.            Pallichchhandam: land donated to Jaina institutions.

 Explain about brahmadeya

• Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders.
• These assemblies worked very efficiently.
• Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples.
• Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.

The inscriptions for the details how Sabha functioned were found where.

 Inscriptions providing details of how the sabha was organized were found in Uttaramerur, a town in Chingleput district, Tamil

 What is a sabha and what were its responsibilities?

• A sabha was an assembly of prominent Brahmana landholders.
• The sabha looked after a brahmadeya.
• The sabha had separate committees responsible for overseeing different aspects of administration.
• These committees were responsible for areas such as irrigation works, gardens, and temples.

How were the committee members chosen?

A young boy was asked to take out tickets, one by one for each committee, from an earthenware pot containing small tickets of palm leaf with names of those eligible to be members of these committees. This process was used to determine the members of each committee.

Inscriptions and texts

• The Uttaramerur inscription describes who could be a member of a sabha.
• To be a member of a sabha, a person should:
• Own land from which land revenue is collected.
• Have their own home.
• Be between 35 and 70 years old.
• Know about the Vedas.
• Be good at administrative matters and be honest.
• A person cannot be a member of another committee if they have been a member of any committee in the last three years.
• A person cannot contest elections if they or their relatives have not submitted their accounts.

    Periyapuranam

 The selected text is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth-century Tamil work.

• The text informs us about the lives of ordinary men and women.
• It describes a small hamlet of Pulaiyas, a social group considered “outcastes” by Brahmanas and Vellalas, on the outskirts of Adanur.
• The hamlet was inhabited by agrarian laborers engaged in menial occupations, living in small huts with old thatches.
• The text provides a vivid description of daily life in the hamlet, including details about animals, children, and laborers.